JAVS Summer 2025

Only a few examples of the lira in an unconverted, original condition have survived today. In sixteenth century Italy, cities such as Brescia, Verona, and Venice were especially known for their master luthiers who created lira da braccio instruments. Among these luthiers, the Venetian maker Francesco Ventura di Linarol holds a place of distinction. Instruments attributed to Linarol are still performed upon today by noted musicians. In a widely circulated performance of Schubert’s Trout Quintet, violist Pinchas Zukerman plays a Linarol viola—believed to have been converted from a former lira da braccio . Another Linarol viola (#45007), presented by the instrument dealer Tarisio, is identified as having undergone such a conversion. Reference to this is made in Lawrence C. Witten’s detailed article in the Journal of the American Musical Instrument Society (1975). 3 The physical characteristics of the lira da braccio evolved over time. Initially corner-less and reminiscent of the vielle , the lira ’s body gradually adopted a two-cornered form and ultimately stabilized into its classic four cornered shape. The bridge was less curved than that of modern instruments, allowing for more facile chordal playing, and early models lacked a sound post. The sound holes began as C-shaped openings, eventually evolving into the more familiar S- or F-shaped holes. The instrument typically featured narrower bouts and was played with a longer, outwardly curved bow. One of the most distinctive features of the lira da braccio is its leaf-shaped pegbox, which gives the instrument a unique visual identity. It is further distinguished by the presence of two bourdon strings positioned on the left side of the fingerboard, in addition to five central strings over the fingerboard. These bourdon strings, which lie outside the fingerboard but are not fingered, provide a low-pitched bass that enriches the instrument’s harmonic texture. While earlier versions varied, this seven-string configuration became the instrument’s classic form, extending its tessitura in the tenor range and lending it greater expressive capacity. As Marin Mersenne wrote in Harmonie Universelle, “the instrument (the lira ) is most appropriate for singing narratives and sonnets and especially for sublime and lofty things, be it in the vernacular or Latin.” 4 Such words reflect the cultural aspirations surrounding the lira da braccio in Renaissance intellectual life. The great fifteenth-century humanist Guarino of Verona,

having studied in the heart of ancient classical culture (Constantinople) returned to Italy and became an influential advocate for reviving the spirit of Antiquity. As a teacher he urged the youth of the ruling class to devote themselves to the combining of music and poetry in the style of the Ancients, suggesting that such pursuits might be more compelling than military efforts or martial conquest. Guarino drew his inspiration from Aristotle’s Politics (Book VIII), wherein the philosopher specifically recommends singing to the accompaniment of a string instrument. It is within this cultural and philosophical framework that the lira da braccio came to embody an evocative symbolic identity. No other instrument of the Renaissance is more frequently associated with the archetypal figure of Orpheus than the lira . In mythological tradition, Orpheus represents transformation; his divine music was said to enchant wild creatures of the forest.

Figure 5. "Orpheus with the animals in the forest", Siena, 1604.

Journal of the American Viola Society / Vol. 41, Summer 2025 Online Issue

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